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Anabasis Alexandri: Book VIII (Indica) ...........................................................................................................1

I. ALL the territory that lies west of the river Indus up to the river Cophen is inhabited by Astacenians and

Assacenians, Indian tribes. But they are not, like the Indians dwelling within the river Indus, tall of stature,

nor similarly brave in spirit, nor as black as the greater part of the Indians. These long ago were subject to the

Assyrians; then to the Medes, and so they became subject to the Persians; and they paid tribute to Cyrus son

of Cambyses from their territory, as Cyrus commanded. The Nysaeans are not an Indian race; but part of

those who came with Dionysus to India; possibly even of those Greeks who became past service in the wars

which Dionysus waged with Indians; possibly also volunteers of the neighbouring tribes whom Dionysus

settled there together with the Greeks, calling the country Nysaea from the mountain Nysa, and the city itself

Nysa. And the mountain near the city, on whose foothills Nysa is built, is called Merus because of the

incident at Dionysus' birth. All this the poets sang about Dionysus; and I leave it to the narrators of Greek or

Eastern history to recount them. Among the Assacenians is Massaca, a great city, where resides the chief

authority of the Assacian land; and another city Peucela, this also a great city, not far from the Indus. These

places then are inhabited on this side of the Indus towards the west, as far as the river Cophen.

II. But the parts from the Indus eastward, these I shall call India, and its inhabitants Indians. The boundary of

the land of India towards the north is Mount Taurus. It is not still called Taurus in this land; but Taurus

begins from the sea over against Pamphylia and Lycia and Cilicia; and reaches as far as the Eastern Ocean,

running right across Asia. But the mountain has different names in different places; in one, Parapamisus, in

another Hemodus; elsewhere it is called Imaon, and perhaps has all sorts of other names; but the

Macedonians who fought with Alexander called it Caucasus; another Caucasus, that is, not the Scythian; so

that the story ran that Alexander came even to the far side of the Caucasus. The western part of India is

bounded by the river Indus right down to the ocean, where the river runs out by two mouths, not joined

together as are the five mouths of the Ister; but like those of the Nile, by which the Egyptian delta is formed;

thus also the Indian delta is formed by the river Indus, not less than the Egyptian; and this in the Indian

tongue is called Pattala. Towards the south this ocean bounds the land of India, and eastward the sea itself is

the boundary. The southern part near Pattala and the mouths of the Indus were surveyed by Alexander and

Macedonians, and many Greeks; as for the eastern part, Alexander did not traverse this beyond the river

Hyphasis. A few historians have described the parts which are this side of the Ganges and where are the

mouths of the Ganges and the city of Palimbothra, the greatest Indian city on the Ganges.

III. I hope I may be allowed to regard Eratosthenes of Cyrene as worthy of special credit, since he was a

student of Geography. He states that beginning with Mount Taurus, where are the springs of the river Indus,

along the Indus to the Ocean, and to the mouths of the Indus, the side of India is thirteen thousand stades in

length. The opposite side to this one, that from the same mountain to the Eastern Ocean, he does not reckon

as merely equal to the former side, since it has a promontory running well into the sea; the promontory

stretching to about three thousand stades. So then he would make this side of India, to the eastward, a total

length of sixteen thousand stades. This he gives, then, as the breadth of India. Its length, however, from west

to east, up to the city of Palimbothra, he states that he gives as measured by reedmeasurements; for there is a

royal road; and this extends to ten thousand stades; beyond that, the information is not so certain. Those,

however, who have followed common talk say that including the promontory, which runs into the sea, India

extends over about ten thousand stades; but farther north its length is about twenty thousand stades. But

Ctesias of Cnidus affirms that the land of India is equal in size to the rest of Asia, which is absurd; and

Onesicritus is absurd, who says that India is a third of the entire world; Nearchus, for his part, states that the

journey through the actual plain of India is a four months' journey. Megasthenes would have the breadth of

India that from east to west which others call its length; and he says that it is of sixteen thousand stades, at its

shortest stretch. From north to south, then, becomes for him its length, and it extends twentytwo thousand

three hundred stades, to its narrowest point. The Indian rivers are greater than any others in Asia; greatest are

the Ganges and the Indus, whence the land gets its name; each of these is greater than the Nile of Egypt and

the Scythian Ister, even were these put together; my own idea is that even the Acesines is greater than the

Ister and the Nile, where the Acesines having taken in the Hydaspes, Hydraotes, and Hyphasis, runs into the

Indus, so that its breadth there becomes thirty stades. Possibly also other greater rivers run through the land of

IV. As for the yonder side of the Hyphasis, I cannot speak with confidence, since Alexander did not proceed

beyond the Hyphasis. But of these two greatest rivers, the Ganges and the Indus, Megasthenes wrote that the

Ganges is much greater than the Indus, and so do all others who mention the Ganges; for (they say) the

Ganges is already large as it comes from its springs, and receives as tributaries the river Cainas and the

Erannoboas and the Cossoanus, all navigable; also the river Sonus and the Sittocatis and the Solomatis, these

likewise navigable. Then besides there are the Condochates and the Sambus and Magon and Agoranis and

Omalis; and also there run into it the Commenases, a great river, and the Cacuthis and Andomatis, flowing

from the Indian tribe of the Mandiadinae; after them the Amystis by the city Catadupas, and the Oxymagis at

the place called Pazalae, and the Errenysis among the Mathae, an Indian tribe, also meet the Ganges.

Megasthenes says that of these none is inferior to the Maeander, where the Maeander is navigable. The breath

therefore of the Ganges, where it is at its narrowest, runs to a hundred stades; often it spreads into lakes, so

that the opposite side cannot be seen, where it is low and has no projections of hills. It is the same with the

Indus; the Hydraotes, in the territory of the Cambistholians, receives the Hyphasis in that of the Astrybae, and

the Saranges from the Cecians, and the Neydrus from the Attacenians, and flows, with these, into the

Acesines. The Hydaspes also among the Oxydracae receives the Sinarus among the Arispae and it too flows

out into the Acesines. The Acesines among the Mallians joins the Indus; and the Tutapus, a large river, flows

into the Acesines. All these rivers swell the Acesines, and proudly retaining its own name it flows into the

Indus. The Cophen, in the Peucelaetis, taking with it the Malantus, the Soastus, and the Garroeas, joins the

Indus. Above these the Parenus and Saparnus, not far from one another, flow into the Indus. The Soanus,

from the mountains of the Abissareans, without any tributary, flows into it. Most of these Megasthenes

reports to be navigable. It should not then be incredible that neither Nile nor Ister can be even compared with

Indus or Ganges in volume of water. For we know of no tributary to the Nile; rather from it canals have been

cut through the land of Egypt. As for the Ister, it emerges from its springs a meagre stream, but receives many

tributaries; yet not equal in number to the Indian tributaries which flow into Indus or Ganges; and very few of

these are navigable; I myself have only noticed the Enus and the Saus. The Enus on the line between Norica

and Rhaetia joins the Ister, the Saus in Paeonia. The country where the rivers join is called Taurunus. If

anybody is aware of other navigable rivers which form tributaries to the Ister, he certainly does not know

V. I hope that anyone who desires to explain the cause of the number and size of the Indian rivers will do so;

and that my remarks may be regarded as set down on hearsay only. For Megasthenes has recorded names of

many other rivers, which beyond the Ganges and the Indus run into the eastern and southern outer ocean; so

that he states the number of Indian rivers in all to be fiftyeight, and these all navigable. But not even

Megasthenes, so far as I can see, travelled over any large part of India; yet a good deal more than the

followers of Alexander son of Philip did. For he states that he met Sandracottus, the greatest of the Indian

kings, and Porus, even greater than he was. This Megasthenes says, moreover, that the Indians waged war on

no men, nor other men on the Indians, but on the other hand that Sesostris the Egyptian, after subduing the

most part of Asia, and after invading Europe with an army, yet returned back; and Indathyrsis the Scythian

who started from Scythia subdued many tribes of Asia, and invaded Egypt victoriously; but Semiramis the

Assyrian queen tried to invade India, but died before she could carry out her purposes; it was in fact

Alexander only who actually invaded India. Before Alexander, too, there is a considerable tradition about

Dionysus as having also invaded India, and having subdued the Indians; about Heracles there is not much

tradition. As for Dionysus, the city of Nysa is no mean memorial of his expedition, and also Mount Merus,

and the growth of ivy on this mountain then the habit of the Indians themselves setting out to battle with the

sound of drums and cymbals; and their dappled costume, like that worn by the bacchanals, of Dionysus. But

of Heracles the memorials are slight. Yet the story of the rock Aornos, which Alexander forced, namely, that

Heracles could not capture it, I am inclined to think a Macedonian boast; just as the Macedonians called

Parapamisus by the name of Caucasus, though it has nothing to do with Caucasus. And besides, learning that

there was a cave among the Parapamisadae, they said that this was the cave of Prometheus the Titan, in which

he was crucified for his theft of the fire. Among the Sibae, too, an Indian tribe, having noticed them clad with

skins they used to assert that they were relics of Heracles' expedition. What is more, as the Sibae carried a

club, and they brand their cattle with a club, they referred this too to some memory of Heracles' club. If

anyone believes this, at least it must be some other Heracles, not he of Thebes, but either of Tyre or of Egypt,

VI. This then must be regarded as a digression, so that too much credence may not be given to the stories

which certain persons have related about the Indians beyond the Hyphasis; for those who served under

Alexander are reasonably trustworthy up to the Hyphasis. For Megasthenes tells us this also about an Indian

river; its name is Silas, it flows from a spring of the same name as the river through the territory of the

Sileans, the people also named both from river and spring; its water has the following peculiarity; nothing is

supported by it, nothing can swim in it or float upon it, but everything goes straight to the bottom; so far is

this water thinner and more aery than any other. In the summer there is rain through India; especially on the

mountains, Parapamisus and Hemodus and the Imaus, and from them the rivers run great and turbulent. The

plains of India also receive rain in summer, and much part of them becomes swamp; in fact Alexander's army

retired from the river Acesines in midsummer, when the river had overflowed on to the plains; from these,

therefore, one can gauge the flooding of the Nile, since probably the mountains of Ethiopia receive rain in

summer, and from them the Nile is swollen and overflows its banks on to the land of Egypt the Nile therefore

also runs turbid this time of the year, as it probably would not be from melting snow; nor yet if its stream was

dammed up by the seasonal winds which blow during the summer; and besides, the mountains of Ethiopia are

probably not snowcovered, on account of the heat. But that they receive rain as India does is not outside the

bounds of probability; since in other respects India is not unlike Ethiopia, and the Indian rivers have

crocodiles like the Ethiopian and Egyptian Nile; and some of the Indian rivers have fish and other large water

animals like those of the Nile, save the riverhorse: though Onesicritus states that they do have the

riverhorse also. The appearance of the inhabitants, too, is not so far different in India and Ethiopia; the

southern Indians resemble the Ethiopians a good deal, and, are black of countenance, and their hair black

also, only they are not as snubnosed or so woollyhaired as the Ethiopians; but the northern Indians are

VII. Megasthenes states that there are one hundred and eighteen Indian tribes. That there are many, I agree

with Megasthenes; but I cannot conjecture how he learnt and recorded the exact number, when he never

visited any great part of India, and since these different races have not much intercourse one with another.

The Indians, he says, were originally nomads, as are the nonagricultural Scythians, who wandering in their

waggons inhabit now one and now another part of Scythia; not dwelling in cities and not reverencing any

temples of the gods; just so the Indians also had no cities and built no temples; but were clothed with the

skins of animals slain in the chase, and for food ate the bark of trees; these trees were called in the Indian

tongue Tala, and there grew upon them, just as on the tops of palm trees, what look like clews of wool. They

also used as food what game they had captured, eating it raw, before, at least, Dionysus came into India. But

when Dionysus had come, and become master of India, he founded cities, and gave laws for these cities, and

became to the Indians the bestower of wine, as to the Greeks, and taught them to sow their land, giving them

seed. It may be that Triptolemus, when he was sent out by Demeter to sow the entire earth, did not come this

way; or perhaps before Triptolemus this Dionysus whoever he was came to India and gave the Indians seeds

of domesticated plants; then Dionysus first yoked oxen to the plough and made most of the Indians

agriculturists instead of wanderers, and armed them also with the arms of warfare. Further, Dionysus taught

them to reverence other gods, but especially, of course, himself, with clashings of cymbals and beating of

drums and dancing in the Satyric fashion, the dance called among Greeks the 'cordax'; and taught them to

wear long hair in honour of the god, and instructed them in the wearing of the conical cap and the anointings

with perfumes; so that the Indians came out even against Alexander to battle with the sound of cymbals and

VIII. When departing from India, after making all these arrangements, he made Spatembas king of the land,

one of his Companions, being most expert in Bacchic rites; when Spatembas died, Budyas his son reigned in

his stead; the father was King of India fiftytwo years, and the son twenty years; and his son, again, came to

the throne, one Cradeuas; and his descendants for the most part received the kingdom in succession, son

succeeding father; if the succession failed, then the kings were appointed for some preeminence. But

Heracles, whom tradition states to have arrived as far as India, was called by the Indians themselves

'Indigenous.' This Heracles was chiefly honoured by the Surasenians, an Indian tribe, among whom are two

great cities, Methora and Cleisobora, and the navigable river Iobares flows through their territory.

Megasthenes also says that the garb which this Heracles wore was like that of the Theban Heracles, as also

the Indians themselves record; he also had many sons in his country, for this Heracles too wedded many

wives; he had only one daughter, called Pandaea; as also the country in which she was born, and to rule

which Heracles educated her, was called Pandaea after the girl; here she possessed five hundred elephants

given by her father, four thousand horsemen, and as many as a hundred and thirty thousand footsoldiers.

This also some writers relate about Heracles; he traversed all the earth and sea, and when he had rid the earth

of evil monsters he found in the sea a jewel much affected by women. And thus, even to our day, those who

bring exports from India to our country purchase these jewels at great price and export them, and all Greeks

in old time, and Romans now who are rich and prosperous, are more eager to buy the sea pearl, as it is called

in the Indian tongue for that Heracles, the jewel appearing to him charming, collected from all the sea to India

this kind of pearl, to adorn his daughter. And Megasthenes says that this oyster is taken with nets; that it is a

native of the sea, many oysters being together, like bees; and that the pearl oysters have a king or queen, as

bees do. Should anyone by chance capture the king, he can easily surround the rest of the oysters; but should

the king slip through, then the others cannot be taken; and of those that are taken, the Indians let their flesh

rot, but use the skeleton as an ornament. For among the Indians this pearl sometimes is worth three times its

IX. In this country where Heracles' daughter was queen, the girls are marriageable at seven years, and the

men do not live longer than forty years. About this there is a story among the Indians, that Heracles, to whom

when in mature years this daughter was born, realizing that his own end was near, and knowing of no worthy

husband to whom he might bestow his daughter, himself became her husband when she was seven, so that

Indian kings, their children, were left behind. Heracles made her then marriageable, and hence all the royal

race of Pandaea arose, with the same privilege from Heracles. But I think, even if Heracles was able to

accomplish anything so absurd, he could have lengthened his own life, so as to mate with the girl when of

maturer years. But really if this about the age of the girls in this district is true, it seems to me to tend the

same way as the men's age, since the oldest of them die at forty years. For when old age comes on so much

sooner and death with age, maturity will reasonably be earlier, in proportion to the end; so that at thirty the

men might be on the threshold of old age, and at twenty, men in their prime, and manhood at about fifteen, so

that the women might reasonably be marriageable at seven. For that the fruits ripen earlier in this country

than elsewhere, and perish earlier, this Megasthenes himself tells us. From Dionysus to Sandracottus the

Indians counted a hundred and fiftythree kings, over six thousand and fortytwo years, and during this time

thrice [Movements were made] for liberty . . . this for three hundred years; the other for a hundred and twenty

years; the Indians say that Dionysus was fifteen generations earlier than Heracles; but no one else ever

invaded India, not even Cyrus son of Cambyses, though he made an expedition against the Scythians, and in

all other ways was the most energetic of the kings in Asia; but Alexander came and conquered by force of

arms all the countries he entered; and would have conquered the whole world had his army been willing. But

no Indian ever went outside his own country on a warlike expedition, so righteous were they.

X. This also is related; that Indians do not put up memorials to the dead; but they regard their virtues as

sufficient memorials for the departed, and the songs which they sing at their funerals. As for the cities of

India, one could not record their number accurately by reason of their multitude; but those of them which are

near rivers or near the sea, they build of wood; for if they were built of brick, they could not last long because

of the rain, and also because their rivers overflow their banks and fill the plains with water. But such cities as

are built on high and lofty places, they make of brick and clay. The greatest of the Indian cities is called

Palimbothra, in the district of the Prasians, at the confluence of the Erannoboas and the Ganges; the Ganges,

greatest of all rivers; the Erannoboas may be the third of the Indian rivers, itself greater than the rivers of

other countries; but it yields precedence to the Ganges, when it pours into it its tributary stream. And

Megasthenes says that the length of the city along either side, where it is longest, reaches to eighty stades its

breadth to fifteen; and a ditch has been dug round the city, six plethra in breadth, thirty cubits high; and on

the wall are five hundred and seventy towers, and sixtyfour gates. This also is remarkable in India, that all

Indians are free, and no Indian at all is a slave. In this the Indians agree with the Lacedaemonians. Yet the

Lacedaemonians have Helots for slaves, who perform the duties of slaves; but the Indians have no slaves at

XI. The Indians generally are divided into seven castes. Those called the wise men are less in number than

the rest, but chiefest in honour and regard. For they are under no necessity to do any bodily labour; nor to

contribute from the results of their work to the common store; in fact, no sort of constraint whatever rests

upon these wise men, save to offer the sacrifices to the gods on behalf of the people of India. Then whenever

anyone sacrifices privately, one of these wise men acts as instructor of the sacrifice, since otherwise the

sacrifice would not have proved acceptable to the gods. These Indians also are alone expert in prophecy, and

none, save one of the wise men, is allowed to prophesy. And they prophesy about the seasons of the year, or

of any impending public calamity: but they do not trouble to prophesy on private matters to individuals,

either because their prophecy does not condescend to smaller things, or because it is undignified for them to

trouble about such things. And when one has thrice made an error in his prophecy, he does not suffer any

harm, except that he must for ever hold his peace; and no one will ever persuade such a one to prophesy on

whom this silence has been enjoined. These wise men spend their time naked, during the winter in the open

air and sunshine, but in summer, when the sun is strong, in the meadows and the marsh lands under great

trees; their shade Nearchus computes to reach five plethra all round, and ten thousand men could take shade

under one tree; so great are these trees. They eat fruits in their season, and the bark of the trees; this is sweet

and nutritious as much as are the dates of the palm. Then next to these come the farmers, these being the most

numerous class of Indians; they have no use for warlike arms or warlike deeds, but they till the land; and they

pay the taxes to the kings and to the cities, such as are selfgoverning; and if there is internal war among the

Indians, they may not touch these workers, and not even devastate the land itself; but some are making war

and slaying all comers, and others close by are peacefully ploughing or gathering the fruits or shaking down

apples or harvesting. The third class of Indians are the herdsmen, pasturers of sheep and cattle, and these

dwell neither by cities nor in the villages. They are nomads and get their living on the hillsides, and they pay

XII The fourth class is of artisans and shopkeepers; these are workers, and pay tribute from their works, save

such as make weapons of war; these are paid by the community. In this class are the shipwrights and sailors,

who navigate the rivers. The fifth class of Indians is the soldiers' class, next after the farmers in number; these

have the greatest freedom and the most spirit. They practise military pursuits only. Their weapons others

forge for them, and again others provide horses; others too serve in the camps, those who groom their horses

and polish their weapons, guide the elephants, and keep in order and drive the chariots. They themselves,

when there is need of war, go to war, but in time of peace they make merry; and they receive so much pay

from the community that they can easily from their pay support others. The sixth class of Indians are those

called overlookers. They oversee everything that goes on in the country or in the cities; and this they report to

the King, where the Indians are governed by kings, or to the authorities, where they are independent. To these

it is illegal to make any false report; nor was any Indian ever accused of such falsification. The seventh class

is those who deliberate abbut the community together with the King, or, in such cities as are selfgoverning,

with the authorities. In number this class is small, but in wisdom and uprightness it bears the palm from all

others; from this class are selected their governors, district governors, and deputies, custodians of the

treasures, officers of army and navy, financial officers, and overseers of agricultural works. To marry out of

any class is unlawful as, for instance, into the farmer class from the artisans, or the other way; nor must

the same man practise two pursuits; nor change from one class into another, as to turn farmer from shepherd,

or shepherd from artisan. It is only permitted to join the wise men out of any class; for their business is not an

XIII. Most wild animals which the Greeks hunt the Indians hunt also, but these have a way of hunting

elephants unlike all other kinds of hunting, just as these animals are unlike other animals. It is this they

choose a place that is level and open to the sun's heat, and dig a ditch in a circle, wide enough for a great

army to camp within it. They dig the ditch five fathoms broad, and four deep. The earth which they throw out

of the ditch they heap on either side of the ditch, and so use it as a wall; then they make shelters for

themselves, dug out of the wall on the outside of the ditch, and leave small windows in them; through these

the light comes in, and also they watch the animals coming in and charging into the enclosure. Then within

the enclosure they leave some three or four of the females, those that are tamest, and leave only one entrance

by the ditch, making a bridge over it; and here they heap much earth and grass so that the animals cannot

distinguish the bridge, and so suspect any guile. The hunters then keep themselves out of the way, hiding

under the shelters dug in the ditch. Now the wild elephants do not approach inhabited places by daylight, but

at night they wander all about and feed in herds, following the largest and finest of their number, as cows do

the bulls. And when they approach the ditch and hear the trumpeting of the females and perceive them by

their scent, they rush to the walled enclosure; and when, working round the outside edge of the ditch, they

find the bridge, they push across it into the enclosure. Then the hunters, perceiving the entry of the wild

elephants, some smartly remove the bridge, others hurrying to the neighbouring villages report that the

elephants are caught in the enclosure; and the inhabitants on hearing the news mount the most spirited, and at

the same time most disciplined elephants, and then drive them towards the enclosure, and when they have

driven them thither they do not at once join battle, but allow the wild elephants to grow distressed by hunger

and to be tamed by thirst. But when they think they are sufficiently distressed, then they erect the bridge

again, and enter the enclosure; and at first there is a fierce battle between the tamed elephants and the

captives, and then, as one would expect, the wild elephants are tamed, distressed as they are by a sinking of

their spirits and by hunger. Then the riders dismounting from the tamed elephants tie together the feet of the

now languid wild ones; then they order the tamed elephants to punish the rest by repeated blows, till in their

distress they fall to earth; then they come near them and throw nooses round their necks; and climb on them

as they lie there. And that they may not toss their drivers nor do them any injury, they make an incision in

their necks with a sharp knife, all round, and bind their noose round the wound, so that by reason of the sore

they keep their heads and necks still. For were they to turn round to do mischief, the wound beneath the rope

chafes them. And so they keep quiet, and perceiving that they are conquered, they are led of by the tamed

XIV. Such elephants as are not yet full grown or from some defect are not worth the acquiring, they allow to

depart to their own laim, Then they lead of their captives to the villages and first of all give them green shoots

and grass to eat; but they, from want of heart, are not willing to eat anything; so the Indians range themselves

about them and with songs and drums and cymbals, beating and singing, lull them to sleep. For if there is an

intelligent animal, it is the elephant. Some of them have been known, when their drivers have perished in

battle, to have caught them up and carried them to burial; others have stood over them and protected them.

Others, when they have fallen, have actively fought for them; one, indeed, who in a passion slew his driver,

died from remorse and grief. I myself have seen an elephant clanging the cymbals, and others dancing; two

cymbals were fastened to the player's forelegs, and one on his trunk, and he rhythmically beat with his trunk

the cymbal on either leg in turn; the dancers danced in circle, and raising and bending their forelegs in turn

moved also rhythmically, as the player with the cymbals marked the time for them. The elephants mate in

spring, as do oxen and horses, when certain pores about the temples of the females open and exhale; the

female bears its offispring sixteen months at the least, eighteen at most; it has one foal, as does a mare; and

this it suckles till its eighth year. The longestlived elephants survive to two hundred years; but many die

before that by disease; but as far as mere age goes, they reach this age. If their eyes are affected, cow's milk

injected cures them; for their other sicknesses a draught of dark wine, and for their wounds swine's flesh

XV. The Indians regard the tiger as much stronger than the elephant. Nearchus writes that he had seen a

tiger's skin, but no tiger; the Indians record that the tiger is in size as great as the largest horse, and its

swiftness and strength without parallel, for a tiger, when it meets an elephant, leaps on to the head and easily

throttles it. Those, however, which we see and call tigers are dappled jackals, but larger than ordinary jackals.

Nay, about ants also Nearchus says that he himself saw no ant, of the sort which some writers have described

as native of India; he saw, however, several of their skins brought into the Macedonian camp.Megasthenes,

however confirms the accounts given about these ants; that ants do dig up gold, not indeed for the gold, but as

they naturally burrow, that they may make holes, just as our small ants excavate a small amount of earth; but

these, which are bigger than foxes, dig up earth also proportionate to their size; the earth is auriferous, and

thus the Indians get their gold. Megasthenes, however, merely quotes hearsay, and as I have no certainty to

write on the subject, I readily dismiss this subject of ants. But Nearchus describes, as something miraculous,

parrots, as being found in India, and describes the parrot, and how it utters a human voice. But I having seen

several, and knowing others acquainted with this bird, shall not dilate on them as anything remarkable; nor

yet upon the size of the apes, nor the beauty of some Indian apes, and the method of capture. For I should

only say what everyone knows, except perhaps that apes are anywhere beautiful. And further Nearchus says

that snakes are hunted there, dappled and swift; and that which he states Peithon son of Antigenes to have

caught, was upwards of sixteen cubits; but the Indians (he proceeds) state that the largest snakes are much

larger than this. No Greek physicians have discovered a remedy against Indian snakebite; but the Indians

themselves used to cure those who were struck. And Nearchus adds that Alexander had gathered about him

Indians very skilled in physic, and orders were sent round the camp that anyone bitten by a snake was to

report at the royal pavilion. But there are not many illnesses in India, since the seasons are more temperate

than with us. If anyone is seriously ill, they would inform their wise men, and they were thought to use the

XVI. The Indians wear linen garments, as Nearchus says, the linen coming from the trees of which I have

already made mention. This linen is either brighter than the whiteness of other linen, or the people's own

blackness makes it appear unusually bright. They have a linen tunic to the middle of the calf, and for outer

garments, one thrown round about their shoulders, and one wound round their heads. They wear ivory

earrings, that is, the rich Indians; the common people do not use them. Nearchus writes that they dye their

beards various colours; some therefore have these as whitelooking as possible, others dark, others crimson,

others purple, others grassgreen. The more dignified Indians use sunshades against the summer heat. They

have slippers of white skin, and these too made neatly; and the soles of their sandals are of different colours,

and also high, so that the wearers seem taller. Indian war equipment differs; the infantry have a bow, of the

height of the owner; this they poise on the ground, and set their left foot against it, and shoot thus; drawing

the bowstring a very long way back; for their arrows are little short of three cubits, and nothing can stand

against an arrow shot by an Indian archer, neither shield nor breastplate nor any strong armour. In their left

hands they carry small shields of untanned hide, narrower than their bearers, but not much shorter. Some

have javelins in place of bows. All carry a broad scimitar, its length not under three cubits; and this, when

they have a handtohand fight and Indians do not readily fight so among themselves they bring down

with both hands in smiting, so that the stroke may be an effective one. Their horsemen have two javelins, like

lances, and a small shield smaller than the infantry's. The horses have no saddles, nor do they use Greek bits

nor any like the Celtic bits, but round the end of the horses' mouths they have an untanned stitched rein fitted;

in this they have fitted, on the inner side, bronze or iron spikes, but rather blunted; the rich people have ivory

spikes; within the mouth of the horses is a bit, like a spit, to either end of which the reins are attached. Then

when they tighten the reins this bit masters the horse, and the spikes, being attached thereto, prick the horse

XVII. The Indians in shape are thin and tall and much lighter in movement than the rest of mankind. They

usually ride on camels, horses, and asses; the richer men on elephants. For the elephant in India is a royal

mount; then next in dignity is a fourhorse chariot, and camels come third; to ride on a single horse is low.

Their women, such as are of great modesty, can be seduced by no other gift, but yield themselves to anyone

who gives an elephant; and the Indians think it no disgrace to yield thus on the gift of an elephant, but rather

it seems honourable for a woman that her beauty should be valued at an elephant. They marry neither giving

anything nor receiving anything; such girls as are marriageable their fathers bring out and allow anyone who

proves victorious in wrestling or boxing or running or shows preeminence in any other manly pursuit to

choose among them. The Indians eat meal and till the ground, except the mountaineers; but these eat the flesh

of game. This must be enough for a description of the Indians, being the most notable things which Nearchus

and Megasthenes, men of credit, have recorded about them. But as the main subject of this my history was

not to write an account of the Indian customs but the way in which Alexander's navy reached Persia from

XVIII. For Alexander, when his fleet was made ready on the banks of the Hydaspes, collected together all the

Phoenicians and all the Cyprians and Egyptians who had followed the northern expedition. From these he

manned his ships, picking out as crews and rowers for them any who were skilled in seafaring. There were

also a good many islanders in the army, who understood these things, and Ionians and Hellespontines. As

commanders of triremes were appointed, from the Macedonians, Hephaestion son of Amyntor, and

Leonnatus son of Eunous, Lysimachus son of Agathocles, and Asclepiodorus son of Timander, and Archon

son of Cleinias, and Demonicus son of Athenaeus, Archias son of Anaxidotus, Ophellas son of Seilenus,

Timanthes son of Pantiades; all these were of Pella. From Amphipolis these were appointed officers:

Nearchus son of Androtimus, who wrote the account of the voyage; and Laomedon son of Larichus, and

Androsthenes son of Callistratus; and from Orestis. Craterus son of Alexander, and Perdiccas son of Orontes.

Of Eordaea, Ptolemaeus son of Lagos and Aristonous son of Peisaeus; from Pydna, Metron son of

Epicharmus and Nicarchides son of Simus. Then besides, Attalus son of Andromenes, of Stympha Peucestas

son of Alexander, from Mieza; Peithon son of Crateuas, of Alcomenae; Leonnatus son of Antipater, of

Aegae; Pantauchus son of Nicolaus, of Aloris; Mylleas son of Zoilus, of Beroea; all these being

Macedonians. Of Greeks, Medius son of Oxynthemis, of Larisa; Eumenes son of Hieronymus, from Cardia;

Critobulus, son of Plato, of Cos; Thoas son of Menodorus, and Maeander, son of Mandrogenes, of Magnesia;

Andron son of Cabeleus, of Teos; of Cyprians, Nicocles son of Pasicrates, of Soh; and Nithaphon son of

Pnytagoras, of Salamis. Alexander appointed also a Persian trierarch, Bagoas son of Pharnuces; but of

Alexander's own ship the helmsman was Onesicritus of Astypalaea; and the accountant of the whole fleet was

Euagoras son of Eucleon, of Corinth. As admiral was appointed Nearchus, son of Androtimus, Cretan by

race, and he lived. in Amphipolis on the Strymon. And when Alexander had made all these dispositions, he

sacrificed to the gods, both the gods of his race and all of whom the prophets had warned him, and to

Poseidon and Amphitrite and the Nereids and to Ocean himself and to the river Hydaspes, whence he started,

and to the Acesines, into which the Hydaspes runs, and to the Indus, into which both run; and he instituted

contests of art and of athletics, and victims for sacrifice were given to all the army, according to their

XIX. Then when he had made all ready for starting the voyage, Alexander ordered Craterus to march by the

one side of the Hydaspes with his army, cavalry and infantry alike; Hephaestion had already started along the

other, with another army even bigger than that under Craterus. Hephaestion took with him the elephants, up

to the number of two hundred. Alexander himself took with him all the peltasts, as they are called, and all the

archers, and of the cavalry, those called 'Companions'; in all, eight thousand. But Craterus and Hephaestion,

with their forces, were ordered to march ahead and await the fleet. But he sent Philip, whom he had made

satrap of this country, to the banks of the river Acesines, Philip also with a considerable force; for by this

time a hundred and twenty thousand men of fighting age were following him, together with those whom he

himself had brought from the seacoast; and with those also whom his officers, sent to recruit forces, had

brought back; so that he now led all sorts of Oriental tribes, and armed in every sort of fashion. Then he

himself loosing his ships sailed down the Hydaspes to the meetingplace of Acesines and Hydaspes. His

whole fleet of ships was eighteen hundred, both ships of war and merchantmen, and horse transports besides

and others bringing provisions together with the troops. And how his fleet descended the rivers, and the tribes

he conquered on the descent, and how he endangered himself among the Mallians, and the wound he there

received, then the way in which Peucestas and Leonnatus defended him as he lay there all this I have

related already in my other history, written in the Attic dialect. This my present work, however, is a story of

the voyage, which Nearchus successfully undertook with his fleet starting from the mouths of the Indus by

XX. On this Nearchus writes thus: Alexander had a vehement desire to sail the sea which stretches from India

to Persia; but he disliked the length of the voyage and feared lest, meeting with some country desert or

without roadsteads, or not properly provided with the fruits of the earth, his whole fleet might be destroyed;

and this, being no small blot on his great achievements, might wreck all his happiness; but yet his desire to do

something unusual and strange won the day; still, he was in doubt whom he should choose, as equal to his

designs; and also as the right man to encourage the personnel of the fleet, sent as they were on an

expedition of this kind, so that they should not feel that they were being sent blindly to manifest dangers. And

Nearchus says that Alexander discussed with him whom he should select to be admiral of this fleet; but as

mention was made of one and another, and as Alexander rejected some, as not willing to risk themselves for

his sake, others as chickenhearted, others as consumed by desire for home, and finding some objection to

each; then Nearchus himself spoke and pledged himself thus : '0 King, I undertake to lead your fleet! And

may God help the emprise! I will bring your ships and men safe to Persia, if this sea is so much as navigable

and the undertaking not above human powers.' Alexander, however, replied that he would not allow one of

his friends to run such risks and endure such distress; yet Nearchus, did not slacken in his request, but

besought Alexander earnestly; till at length Alexander accepted Nearchus' willing spirit, and appointed him

admiral of the entire fieet, on which the part of the army which was detailed to sail on this voyage and the

crews felt easier in mind, being sure that Alexander would never have exposed Nearchus to obvious danger

unless they also were to come through safe. Then the splendour of the whole preparations and the smart

equipment of the ships, and the outstanding enthusiasm of the commanders of the triremes about the different

services and the crews had uplifted even those who a short while ago were hesitating, both to bravery and to

higher hopes about the whole affair; and besides it contributed not a little to the general good spirits of the

force that Alexander himself had started down the Indus and had explored both outlets, even into the Ocean,

and had offered victims to Poseidon, and all the other sea gods, and gave splendid gifts to the sea. Then

trusting as they did in Alexander's generally remarkable good fortune, they felt that there was nothing that he

XXI. Now when the trade winds had sunk to rest, which continue blowing from the Ocean to the land all the

summer season, and hence render the voyage impossible, they put to sea, in the archonship at Athens of

Cephisodorus, on the twentieth day of the month Boedromion, as the Athenians reckon it; but as the

Macedonians and Asians counted it, it was ... the eleventh year of Alexander's reign. Nearchus also

sacrificed, before weighing anchor, to Zeus the Saviour, and he too held an athletic contest. Then moving out

from their roadstead, they anchored on the first day in the Indus river near a great canal, and remained there

two days; the district was called Stura; it was about a hundred stades from the roadstead. Then on the third

day they started forthand sailed to another canal, thirty stades' distance, and this canal was alreadysalt; for

the sea came up into it, especially at full tides, and then at the ebb the water remained there, mingled with the

river water. This place was called Caumara. Thence they sailed twenty stades and anchored at Coreestis, still

on the river. Thence they started again and sailed not so very far, for they saw a reef at this outlet of the river

Indus, and the waves were breaking violently on the shore, and the shore itself was very rough. But where

there was a softer part of the reef, they dug a channel, five stades long, and brought the ships down it, when

the flood tide came up from the sea. Then sailing round, to a distance of a hundred and fifty stades, they

anchored at a sandy island called Crocala, and stayed there through the next day; and there lives here an

Indian race called Arabeans, of whom I made mention in my larger history; and that they have their name

from the river Arabis, which runs through their country and finds its outlet in the sea, forming the boundary

between this country and that of the Oreitans. From Crocala, keeping on the right hand the hill they call Irus,

they sailed on, with a lowlying island on their left; and the island running parallel with the shore makes a

narrow bay. Then when they had sailed through this, they anchored in a harbour with good anchorage; and as

Ne'archus considered the harbour a large and fine one, he called it Alexander's Haven. At the heads of the

harbour there lies an island, about two stades away, called Bibacta; the neighbouring region, however, is

called Sangada. This island, forming a barrier to the sea, of itself makes a harbour. There constant strong

winds were blowing off the ocean. Nearchus therefore, fearing lest some of the natives might collect to

plunder the camp, surrounded the place with a stone wall. He stayed there thirtythree days; and through that

time, he says, the soldiers hunted for mussels, oysters, and razorfish, as they are called; they were all of

XXII. On the wind falling, they weighed anchor; and after sailing sixty stades they moored off a sandy shore;

there was a desert island near the shore. They used this, therefore, as a breakwater and moored there: the

island was called Domai. On the shore there was no water, but after advancing some twenty stades inland

they found good water. Next day they sailed up to nightfall to Saranga, some three hundred stades, and

moored off the beach, and water was found about eight stades from the beach. Thence they sailed and moored

at Sacala, a desert spot. Then making their way through two rocks, so close together that the oarblades of

the ships touched the rocks to port and starboard, they moored at Morontobara, after sailing some three

hundred stades. The harbour is spacious, circular, deep, and calm, but its entrance is narrow. They called it, in

the natives' language, 'The Ladies' Pool,' since a lady was the first sovereign of this district. When they had

got safe through the rocks, they met great waves, and the sea running strong; and moreover it seemed very

hazardous to sail seaward of the cliffs. For the next day, however, they sailed with an island on their port

beam, so as to break the sea, so close indeed to the beach that one would have conjectured that it was a

channel cut between the island and the coast. The entire passage was of some seventy stades. On the beach

were many thick trees, and the island was wholly covered with shady forest. About dawn, they sailed outside

the island, by a narrow and turbulent passage; for the tide was still falling. And when they had sailed some

hundred and twenty stades they anchored in the mouth of the river Arabis. There was a fine large harbour by

its mouth; but there was no drinking water; for the mouths of the Arabis were mixed with seawater.

However, after penetrating forty stades inland they found a waterhole, and after drawing water thence they

returned back again. By the harbour was a high island, desert, and round it one could get oysters and all kinds

of fish. Up to this the country of the Arabeans extends; they are the last Indians settled in this direction; from

XXIII. Leaving the outlets of the Arabis they coasted along the territory of the Oreitans, and anchored at

Pagala, after a voyage of two hundred stades, near a breaking sea; but they were able all the same to cast

anchor. The crews rode out the seas in their vessels, though a few went in seach of water, and procured it.

Next day they sailed at dawn, and after making four hundred and thirty stades they put in towards evening at

Cabana, and moored on a desert shore. There too was a heavy surf, and so they anchored their vessels well

out to sea. It was on this part of the voyage that a heavy squall from seaward caught the fleet, and two

warships were lost on the passage, and one galley; the men swam off and got to safety, as they were sailing

quite near the land. But about midnight they weighed anchor and sailed as far as Cocala, which was about

two hundred stades from the beach off which they had anchored. The ships kept the open sea and anchored,

but Nearchus disembarked the crews and bivouacked on shore; after all these toils and dangers in the sea,

they desired to rest awhile. The camp was entrenched, to keep off the natives. Here Leonnatus, who had been

in charge of operations against the Oreitans, beat in a great battle the Oreitans, along with others who had

joined their enterprise. He slew some six thousand of them, including all the higher officers; of the cavalry

with Leonnatus, fifteen fell, and of his infantry, among a few others, Apollophanes satrap of Gadrosia. This I

have related in my other history, and also how Leonnatus was crowned by Alexander for this exploit with a

golden coronet before the Macedonians. There provision of corn had been gathered ready, by Alexander's

orders, to victual the host; and they took on board ten days' rations. The ships which had suffered in the

passage so far they repaired; and whatever troops Nearchus thought were inclined to malinger he handed over

XXIV. Thence they set sail and progressed with a favouring wind; and after a passage of five hundred stades

the anchored by a torrent, which ,was called Tomerus. There was a lagoon at the mouths of the river, and the

depressions near the bank were inhabited by natives in stifling cabins. These seeing the convoy sailing up

were astounded, and lining along the shore stood ready to repel any who should attempt a landing. They

carried thick spears, about six cubits long; these had no iron tip, but the same result was obtained by

hardening the point with fire. They were in number about six hundred. Nearchus observed these evidently

standing firm and drawn up in order, and ordered the ships to hold back within range, so that their missiles

might reach the shore; for the natives' spears, which looked stalwart, were good for close fighting, but had no

terrors against a volley. Then Nearchus took the lightest and lightestarmed troops, such as were also the best

swimmers, and bade them swim off as soon as the word was given. Their orders were that, as soon as any

swimmer found bottom, he should await his mate, and not attack the natives till they had their formation three

deep; but then they were to raise their battle cry and charge at the double. On the word, those detailed for this

service dived from the ships into the sea, and swam smartly, and took up their formation in orderly manner,

and having made a phalanx, charged, raising, for their part, their battle cry to the God of War, and those on

shipboard raised the cry along with them; and arrows and missiles from the engines were hurled against the

natives. They, astounded at the flash of the armour, and the swiftness of the charge, and attacked by showers

of arrows and missiles, half naked as they were, never stopped to resist but gave way. Some were killed in

flight; others were captured; but some escaped into the hills. Those captured were hairy, not only their heads

but the rest of their bodies; their nails were rather like beasts' claws; they used their nails (according to report)

as if they were iron tools; with these they tore asunder their fishes, and even the less solid kinds of wood;

everything else they cleft with sharp stones; for iron they did not possess. For clothing they wore skins of

XXV. Here the crews beached their ships and repaired such as had suffered. On the sixth day from this they

set sail, and after voyaging about three hundred stades they came to a country which was the last point in the

territory of the Oreitans: the district was called Malana. Such Oreitans as live inland, away from the sea, dress

as the Indians do, and equip themselves similarly for warfare; but their dialect and customs differ. The length

of the coasting voyage along the territory of the Arabeis was about a thousand, stades from the point of

departure; the length of the Oreitan coast sixteen hundred. As they sailed along the land of India for thence

onward the natives are no longer Indians Nearchus states that their shadows were not cast in the same way;

but where they were making for the high seas and steering a southerly course, their shadows appeared to fall

southerly too; but whenever the sun was at midday, then everything seemed shadowless. Then such of the

stars as they had seen hitherto in the sky, some were completely hidden, others showed themselves low down

towards the earth; those they had seen continually before were now observed both setting, and then at once

rising again. I think this tale of Nearchus' is likely; since in Syene of Egypt, when the sun is at the summer

solstice, people show a well where at midday one sees no shade; and in Meroe, at the same season, no

shadows are cast. So it seems reasonable that in India too, since they are far southward, the same natural

phenomena may occur, and especially in the Indian Ocean, just because it particularly runs southward. But

XXVI. Next to the Oreitans, more inland, dwelt the Gadrosians, whose country Alexander and his army had

much pains in traversing; indeed they suffered more than during all the rest of his expedition: all this I have

related in my larger history. Below the Gadrosians, as you follow the actual coast, dwell the people called the

Fisheaters. The fleet sailed past their country. On the first day they unmoored about the second watch, and

put in at Bagisara; a distance along the coast of about six hundred stades. There is a safe harbour there, and a

village called Pasira, some sixty stades from the sea; the natives about it are called Pasireans. The next day

they weighed anchor earlier than usual and sailed round a promontory which ran far seaward, and was high,

and precipitous. Then they dug wells; and obtained only a little water, and that poor and for that day they

rode at anchor, because there was heavy surf on the beach. Next day they put in at Colta after a voyage of two

hundred stades. Thence they departed at dawn, and after voyaging six hundred stades anchored at Calyba. A

village is on the shore, a few datepalms grew near it, and there were dates, still green, upon them. About a

hundred stades from the beach is an island called Carnine. There the villagers brought gifts to Nearchus,

sheep and fishes; the mutton, he says, had a fishy taste, like the flesh of the seabirds, since even the sheep

feed on fish; for there is no grass in the place. However, on the next day they sailed two hundred stades and

moored off a beach, and a village about thirty stades from the sea; it was called Cissa, an Carbis was the

name of the strip of coast. There they found a few boats, the sort which poor fishermen might use; but the

fishermen themselves they did not find, for they had run away as soon as they saw the ships anchoring. There

was no corn there, and the army had spent most of its store; but they caught and embarked there some goats,

and so sailed away. Rounding a tall cape running some hundred and fifty stades into the sea, they put in at a

calm harbour; there was water there, and fishermen dwelt near; the harbour was called Mosarna.

XXVII. Nearchus tells us that from this point a pilot sailed with them, a Gadrosian called Hydraces. He had

promised to take them as far as Carmania; from thence on the navigation was not difficult, but the districts

were better known, up to the Persian Gulf. From Mosarna they sailed at night, seven hundred and fifty stades,

to the beach of Balomus. Thence again to Barna, a village, four hundred stades, where there were many

datepalms and a garden; and in the garden grew myrtles and abundant flowers, of which wreaths were

woven by the natives. There for the first time they saw gardentrees, and men dwelling there not entirely like

animals. Thence they coasted a further two hundred stades and reached Dendrobosa and the ships kept the

roadstead at anchor. Thence about midnight they sailed and came to a harbour Cophas, after a voyage of

about four hundred stades; here dwelt fishermen, with small and feeble boats; and they did not row with their

oars on a rowlock, as the Greeks do, but as you do in a river, propelling the water on this side or that like

labourers digging I the soil. At the harbour was abundant pure water. About the first watch they weighed

anchor and arrived at Cyiza, after a passage of eight hundred stades, where there was a desert beach and a

heavy surf. Here, therefore, they anchored, and each ship took its own meal. Thence they voyaged five

hundred stades and arrived at a small town built near the shore on a hill. Nearchus, who imagined that the

district must be tilled, told Archias of Pella, son of Anaxidotus, who was sailing with Nearchus, and was a

notable Macedonian, that they must surprise the town, since he had no hope that the natives would give the

army provisions of their goodwill; while he could not capture the town by force, but this would require a

siege and much delay; while they in the meanwhile were short of provisions. But that the land did produce

corn he could gather from the straw which they saw lying deep near the beach. When they had come to this

resolve, Nearchus bade the fleet in general to get ready as if to go to sea; and Archias, in his place, made all

ready for the voyage; but Nearchus himself was left behind with a single ship and went off as if to have a

XXVIII. As Nearchus approached the walls, the natives brought him, in a friendly way, gifts from the city;

tunnyfish baked in earthen pans; for there dwell the westernmost of the Fisheating tribes, and were the first

whom the Greeks had seen cooking their food; and they brought also a few cakes and dates from the palms.

Nearchus said that he accepted these gratefully; and desired to visit the town, and they permitted him to enter.

But as soon as he passed inside the gates, he bade two of the archers to occupy the postern, while he and two

others, and the interpreter, mounted the wall on this side and signalled to Archias and his men as had been

arranged: that Nearchus should signal, and Archias understand and do what had been ordered. On seeing the

signal the Macedonians beached their ships with all speed; they leapt in haste into the sea, while the natives,

astounded at this manoeuvre, ran to their arms. The interpreter with Nearchus cried out that they should give

corn to the army, if they wanted to save their city; and the natives replied that they had none, and at the same

time attacked the wall. But the archers with Nearchus shooting from above easily held them up. When,

however, the natives saw that their town was already occupied and almost on the way to be enslaved, they

begged Nearchus to take what corn they had and retire, but not to destroy the town. Nearchus, however, bade

Archias to seize the gates and the neighbouring wall; but he sent with the natives some soldiers to see

whether they would without any trick reveal their corn. They showed freely their flour, ground down from the

dried fish; but only a small quantity of corn and barley. In fact they used as flour what they got from the fish;

and loaves of corn flour they used as a delicacy. When, however, they had shown all they had, the Greeks

provisioned themselves from what was there, and put to sea, anchoring by a headland which the inhabitants

XXIX. Thence, weighing anchor about midnight, they voyaged another thousand stades to Talmena, a

harbour giving good anchorage. Thence they went to Canasis, a deserted town, four hundred stades farther;

here they found a well sunk; and near by were growing wild datepalms. They cut out the hearts of these and

ate them; for the army had run short of food. In fact they were now really distressed by hunger, and sailed on

therefore by day and night, and anchored off a desolate shore. But Nearchus, afraid that they would

disembark and leave their ships from faintheartedness, purposely kept the ships in the open roadstead. They

sailed thence and anchored at Canate, after a voyage of seven hundred and fifty stades. Here there are a beach

and shallow channels. Thence they sailed eight hundred stades, anchoring at Troea; there were small and

povertystricken villages on the coast. The inhabitants deserted their huts and the Greeks found there a small

quantity of corn, and dates from the palms. They slaughtered seven camels which had been left there, and ate

the flesh of them. About daybreak they weighed anchor and sailed three hundred stades, and anchored at

Dagaseira; there some wandering tribe dwelt. Sailing thence they sailed without stop all night andday, and

after a voyage of eleven hundred stades they got past the country of the Fisheaters, where they had been

much distressed by want of food. They did not moor near shore, for there was a long line of surf, but at

anchor, in the open. The length of the voyage along the coast of the Fisheaters is a little above ten thousand

stades. These Fisheaters live on fish; and hence their name; only a few of them fish, for only a few have

proper boats and have any skill in the art of catching fish; but for the most part it is the receding tide which

provides their catch. Some have made nets also for this kind of fishing; most of them about two stades in

length. They make the nets from the bark of the datepalm, twisting the bark like twine. And when the sea

recedes and the earth is left, where the earth remains dry it has no fish, as a rule; but where there are hollows,

some of the water remains, and in this a large number of fish, mostly small, but some large ones too. They

throw their nets over these and so catch them. They eat them raw, just as they take them from the water, that

is, the more tender kinds; the larger ones, which are tougher, they dry in the sun till they are quite sere and

then pound them and make a flour and bread of them; others even make cakes of this flour. Even their flocks

are fed on the fish, dried; for the country has no meadows and produces no grass. They collect also in many

places crabs and oysters and shellfish. There are natural salts in the country; from these they make oil.

Those of them who inhabit the desert parts of their country, treeless as it is and with no cultivated parts, find

all their sustenance in the fishing but a few of them sow part of their district, using the corn as a relish to the

fish, for the fish form their bread. The richest among them have built huts; they collect the bones of any large

fish which the sea casts up, and use them in place of beams. Doors they make from any flat bones which they

can pick up. But the greater part of them, and the poorer sort, have huts made from the fishes' backbones.

XXX. Large whales live in the outer ocean, and fishes much larger than those in our inland sea. Nearchus

states that when they left Cyiza, about daybreak they saw water being blown upwards from the sea as it might

be shot upwards by the force of a waterspout. They were astonished, and asked the pilots of the convoy what

it might be and how it was caused; they replied that these whales as they rove about the ocean spout up the

water to a great height; the sailors, however, were so startled that the oars fell from their hands. Nearchus

went and encouraged and cheered them, and whenever he sailed past any vessel, he signalled them to turn the

ship's bow on towards the whales as if to give them battle; and raising their battle cry with the sound of the

surge to row with rapid strokes and with a great deal of noise. So they all took heart of grace and sailed

together according to signal. But when they actually were nearing the monsters, then they shouted with all the

power of their throats, and the bugles blared, and the rowers made the utmost splashings with their oars. So

the whales, now visible at the bows of the ships, were scared, and dived into the depths; then not long

afterwards they came up astern and spouted the seawater on high. Thereupon joyful applause welcomed this

unexpected salvation, and much praise was showered on Nearchus for his courage and prudence. Some of

these whales go ashore at different parts of the coast; and when the ebb comes, they are caught in the

shallows; and some even were cast ashore high and dry; thus they would perish and decay, and their flesh

rotting off them would leave the bones convenient to be used by the natives for their huts. Moreover, the

bones in their ribs served for the larger beams for their dwellings; and the smaller for rafters; the jawbones

were the doorposts, since many of these whales reached a length of fiveandtwenty fathoms.

XXXI. While they were coasting along the territory of the Fisheaters, they heard a rumour about an island,'

which lies some little distance from the mainland in this direction, about a hundred stades, but is uninhabited.

The natives said that it was sacred to the Sun and was called Nosala, and that no human being ever of his own

will put in there; but that anyone who ignorantly touched there at once disappeared. Nearchus, however, says

that one of his galleys with an Egyptian crew was lost with all hands not far from this island, and that the

pilots stoutly averred about it that they had touched ignorantly on the island and so had disappeared. But

Nearchus sent a thirtyoar to sail round the island, with orders not to put in, but that the crew should shout

loudly, while coasting round as near as they dared; and should call on the lost helmsman by name, or any of

the crew whose name they knew. As no one answered, he tells us that he himself sailed up to the island, and

compelled his unwilling crew to put in; then he went ashore and exploded this island fairytale. They heard

also another current story about this island, that one of the Nereids dwelt there; but the name of this Nereid

was not told. She showed much friendliness to any sailor who approached the island; but then turned him into

a fish and threw him into the sea. The Sun then became irritated with the Nereid, and bade her leave the

island; and she agreed to remove thence, but begged that the spell on her be removed; the Sun consented; and

such human beings as she had turned into fishes he pitied, and turned them again from fishes into human

beings, and hence arose the people called Fisheaters, and so they descended to Alexander's day. Nearchus

shows that all this is mere legend; but I have no commendation for his pains and his scholarship; the stories

are easy enough to demolish; and I regard it as tedious to relate these old tales and then prove them all false.

XXXII. Beyond these Fisheaters the Gadrosians inhabit the interior, a poor and sandy territory; this was

where Alexander's army and Alexander himself suffered so seriously, as I have already related in my other

book. But when the fleet, leaving the Fisheaters, put in at Carmania, they anchored in the open, at the point

where they first touched Carmania; since there was a long and rough line of surf parallel with the coast. From

there they sailed no further due west, but took a new course and steered with their bows pointing between

north and west. Carmania is better wooded than the country of the Fisheaters, and bears more fruits; it has

more grass, and is well watered. They moored at an inhabited place called Badis, in Carmania; with many

cultivated trees growing, except the olive tree, and good vines; it also produced corn. Thence they set out and

voyaged eight hundred stades, and moored off a desert shore; and they sighted a long cape jutting out far into

the ocean; it seemed as if the headland itself was a day's sail away. Those who had knowledge of the district

said that this promontory belonged to Arabia, and was called Maceta; and that thence the Assyrians imported

cinnamon and other spices. From this beach of which the fleet anchored in the open roadstead, and the

promontory, which they sighted opposite them, running out into the sea, the bay (this is my opinion, and

Nearchus held the same) runs back into the interior, and would seem to be the Red Sea. When they sighted

this cape, Onesicritus bade them take their course from it and sail direct to it, in order not to have the trouble

of coasting round the bay. Nearchus, however, replied that Onesicritus was a fool, if he was ignorant of

Alexander's purpose in despatching the expedition. It was not because he was unequal to the bringing all his

force safely through on foot that he had despatched the fleet; but he desired to reconnoitre the coasts that lay

on the line of the voyage, the roadsteads, the islets; to explore thoroughly any bay which appeared, and to

learn of any cities which lay on the seacoast; and to find out what land was fruitful, and what was desert.

They must therefore not spoil Alexander's undertaking, especially when they were almost at the close of their

toils, and were, moreover, no longer in any difficulty about provisions on their coasting cruise. His own fear

was, since the cape ran a long way southward, that they would find the land there waterless and

sunscorched. This view prevailed; and I think that Nearchus evidently saved the expeditionary force by this

decision; for it is generally held that this cape and the country about it are entirely desert and quite denuded

XXXIII. They sailed then, leaving this part of the shore, hugging the land; and after voyaging some seven

hundred stades they anchored off another beach, called Neoptana. Then at dawn they moved off seaward, and

after traversing a hundred stades, they moored by the river Anamis; the district was called Harmozeia. All

here was friendly, and produced fruit of all sorts, except that olives did hot grow there. There they

disembarked, and had a welcome rest from their long toils, remembering the miseries they had endured by

sea and on the coast of the Fisheaters; recounting one to another the desolate character of the country, the

almost bestial nature of the inhabitants, and their own distresses. Some of them advanced some distance

inland, breaking away from the main force, some in pursuit of this, and some of that. There a man appeared

to them, wearing a Greek cloak, and dressed otherwise in the Greek fashion, and speaking Greek also. Those

who first sighted him said that they burst into tears, so strange did it seem after all these miseries to see a

Greek, and to hear Greek spoken. They asked whence he came, who he was; and he said that he had become

separated from Alexander's camp, and that the camp, and Alexander himself, were not very far distant.

Shouting aloud and clapping their hands they brought this man to Nearchus; and he told Nearchus everything,

and that the camp and the King himself were distant five days' journey from the coast. He also promised to

show Nearchus, the governor of this district and did so; and Nearchus took counsel with him how to march

inland to meet the King. For the moment indeed he returned to the ship; but at dawn he had the ships drawn

up on shore, to repair any which had been damaged on the voyage; and also because he had determined to

leave the greater part of his force behind here. So he had a double stockade built round the ships' station, and

a mud wall with a deep trench, beginning from the bank of the river and going on to the beach, where his

XXXIV. While Nearchus was busied with these arrangements, the governor of the country, who had been

told that Alexander felt the deepest concern about this expedition, took for granted that he would receive

some great reward from Alexander if he should be the first to tell him of the safety of the expeditionary force,

and that Nearchus would presently appear before the King. So then he hastened by the shortest route and told

Alexander: 'See, here is Nearchus coming from the ships.' On this Alexander, though not believing what was

told him, yet, as he naturally would be, was pleased by the news itself. But when day succeeded day, and

Alexander, reckoning the time when he received the good news, could not any longer believe it, when,

moreover, relay sent after relay, to escort Nearchus, either went a part of the route, and meeting no one, came

back unsuccessful, or went on further, and missing Nearchus' party, did not themselves return at all, then

Alexander bade the man be arrested for spreading a false tale and making things all the worse by this false

happiness; and Alexander showed both by his looks and his mind that he was wounded with a very poignant

grief. Meanwhile, however, some of those sent to search for Nearchus, who had horses to convey him, and

chariots, did meet on the way Nearchus and Archias, and five or six others; that was the number of the party

which came inland with him. On this meeting they recognized neither Nearchus nor Archias so altered did

they appear; with their hair long, unwashed, covered with brine, wizened, pale from sleeplessness and all

their other distresses; when, however, they asked where Alexander might be, the search party gave reply as to

the locality and passed on. Archias, however, had a happy thought, and said to Nearchus: 'I suspect,

Nearchus, that these persons who are traversing the same road as ours through this desert country have been

sent for the express purpose of finding us; as for their failure to recognize us, I do not wonder at that; we are

in such a sorry plight as to be unrecognizable. Let us tell them who we are and ask them why they come

hither.' Nearchus approved; they did ask whither the party was going; and they replied: 'To look for Nearchus

and his naval force.' Whereupon, 'Here am I, Nearchus,' said he, 'and here is Archias. Do you lead on; we will

XXXV. The soldiers took them up in their cars and drove back again. Some of them , anxious to be

beforehand with the good news, ran forward and told Alexander: 'Here is Nearchus; and with him Archias

and five besides, coming to your presence.' They could not, however, answer any questions about the fleet.

Alexander thereupon became possessed of the idea that these few had been miraculously saved, but that his

whole army had perished; and did not so much rejoice at the safe arrival of Nearchus and Archias, as he was

bitterly pained by the loss of all his force. Hardly had the soldiers told this much, when Nearchus and Archias

approached; Alexander could only with great difficulty recognize them; and seeing them as he did

longhaired and illclad, his grief for the whole fleet and its personnel received even greater surety. Giving

his right hand to Nearchus and leading him aside from the Companions and the bodyguard, for a long time he

wept; but at length recovering himself he said: 'That you come back safe to us, and Archias here, the entire

disaster is tempered to me; but how perished the fleet and the force?' 'Sir,' he replied, 'your ships and men are

safe; we are come to tell with our own lips of their safety.' On this Alexander wept the more, since the safety

of the force had seemed too good to be true; and then he enquired where the ships were anchored. Nearchus

replied: 'They are all drawn up at the mouth of the river Anamis, and are undergoing a refit.' Alexander then

called to witness Zeus of the Greeks and the Libyan, Ammon that in good truth he rejoiced more at this news

than because he had conquered all Asia since the grief he had felt at the supposed loss of the fleet cancelled

XXXVI. The governor of the province, however, whom Alexander had arrested for his false tidings, seeing

'Here,' he said, 'am I, who reported your safe arrival to Alexander; you see in what plight I now am.' So

Nearchus begged Alexander to let him go, and he was let off. Alexander then sacrificed thankofferings for

the safety of his host, to Zeus the Saviour, Heracles, Apollo the Averter of Evil, Poseidon and all the gods of

the sea; and he held a contest of art and of athletics, and also a procession; Nearchus was in the front row in

the procession, and the troops showered on him ribbons and flowers. At the end of the procession Alexander

said to Nearchus: 'I will not let you, Nearchus, run risks or suffer distresses again like those of the past; some

other admiral shall henceforth command the navy till he brings it into Susa.' Nearchus, however, broke in and

said: 'King, I will obey you in all things, as is my bounden duty; but should you desire to do me a gracious

favour, do not this thing, but let me be the admiral of your fleet right up to the end, till I bring your ships safe

to Susa. Let it not be said that you entrusted me with the difficult and desperate work, but the easy task which

leads to ready fame was taken away and put into another's hands.' Alexander checked his speaking further

and thanked him warmly to boot; and so he sent him back a signal giving him a force as escort, but a small

one, as he was going through friendly territory. Yet his journey to the sea was not untroubled; the natives of

the country round about were in possession of the strong places of Carmania, since their satrap had been put

to death by Alexander's orders, and his successor appointed, Tlepolemus, had not established his authority.

Twice then or even thrice on the one day the party came into conflict with different bodies of natives who

kept coming up, and thus without losing any time they only just managed to get safe to the seacoast. Then

XXXVII. When therefore Nearchus had thus duly performed all his religious duties, they weighed anchor.

Coasting along a rough and desert island, they anchored off another island, a large one, and inhabited; this

was after a voyage of three hundred stades, from their point of departure. The desert island was called

Organa, and that off which they moored Oaracta. Vines grew on it and datepalms; and it produced corn; the

length of the island was eight hundred stades. The governor of the island, Mazenes, sailed with them as far as

Susa as a volunteer pilot. They said that in this island the tomb of the first chief of this territory was shown;

his name was Erythres, and hence came the name of the sea. Thence they weighed anchor and sailed onward,

and when they had coasted about two hundred stades along this same island they anchored off it once more

and sighted another island, about forty stades from this large one. It was said to be sacred to Poseidon, and

not to be trod by foot of man. About dawn they put out to sea, and were met by so violent an ebb that three of

the ships ran ashore and were held hard and fast on dry land, and the rest only just sailed through the surf and

got safe into deep water. The ships, however, which ran aground were floated off when next flood came, and

arrived next day where the main fleet was. They moored at another island, about three hundred stades from

the mainland, after a voyage of four hundred stades. Thence they sailed about dawn, and passed on their port

side a desert island; its name was Pylora. Then they anchored at Sisidona, a desolate little township, with

nothing but water and fish; for the natives here were fisheaters whether they would or not, because they

dwelt in so desolate a territory. Thence they got water, and reached Cape Tarsias, which runs right out into

the sea, after a voyage of three hundred stades. Thence they made for Cataea, a desert island, and lowlying;

this was said to be sacred to Hermes and Aphrodite; the voyage was of three hundred stades. Every year the

natives round about send sheep and goats as sacred to Hermes and Aphrodite, and one could see them, now

XXXVIII. So far extends Carmania; beyond this is Persia. The length of the voyage along the Carmanian

coast is three thousand seven hundred stades. The natives' way of life is like that of the Persians, to whom

they are also neighbours; and they wear the same military equipment. The Greeks moved on thence, from the

sacred island, and were already coasting along Persian territory; they put in at a place called Eas, where a

harbour is formed by a small desert island, which is called Cecandrus; the voyage thither is four hundred

stades. At daybreak they sailed to another island, an inhabited one, and anchored there; here, according to

Nearchus, there is pearl fishing, as in the Indian Ocean. They sailed along the point of this island, a distance

of forty stades, and there moored. Next they anchored off a tall hill, called Ochus, in a safe harbour;

fishermen dwelt on its banks. Thence they sailed four hundred and fifty stades, and anchored off Apostana;

many boats were anchored there, and there was a village near, about sixty stades from the sea. They weighed

anchor at night and sailed thence to a gulf, with a good many villages settled round about. This was a voyage

of four hundred stades; and they anchored below a mountain, on which grew many datepahns and other fruit

trees such as flourish in Greece. Thence they umnoored and sailed along to Gogana, about six hundred

stades, to an inhabited district; and they anchored off the torrent, called Areon, just at its outlet. The

anchorage there was uncomfortable; the entrance was narrow, just at the mouth, since the ebb tide caused

shallows in all the neighbourhood of the outlet. After this they anchored again, at another rivermouth, after a

voyage of about eight hundred stades. This river was called Sitacus. Even here, however, they did not find a

pleasant anchorage; in fact this whole voyage along Persia was shallows, surf, and lagoons. There they found

a great supply of corn; brought together there by the King's orders, for their provisioning; there they abode

twentyone days in all; they drew up the ships, and repaired those that had suffered, and the others too they

XXXIX. Thence they started and reached the city of Hieratis, a populous place. The voyage was of seven

hundred and fifty stades; and they anchored in a channel running from the river to the sea and called

Heratemis. At sunrise they sailed along the coast to a torrent called Padagrus; the entire district forms. a

peninsula. There were many gardens, and all sorts of fruit trees were growing there; the name of the place

was Mesambria. From Mesambria they sailed and after a voyage of about two hundred stades anchored at

Taoce on the river Granis. Inland from here was a Persian royal residence, about two hundred stades from the

mouth of the river. On this voyage, Nearchus says, a great whale was seen, stranded on the shore, and some

of the sailors sailed past it and measured it, and said it was of ninety cubits' length. Its hide was scaly, and so

thick that it was a cubit in depth; and it had many oysters, limpets, and seaweeds growing on it. Nearchus

also says that they could see many dolphins round the whale, and these larger than the Mediterranean

dolphins. Going on hence, they put in at the torrent Rogonis, in a good harbour; the length of this voyage was

two hundred stades. Thence again they sailed four hundred stades and bivouacked on the side of a torrent; its

name was Brizana. Then they found difficult anchorage; there were surf, and shallows, and reefs showing

above the sea. But when the flood tide came in, they were able to anchor; when, however,, the tide retired

again, the ships were left high and dry. Then when the flood duly returned, they sailed out, and anchored in a

river called Oroatis, greatest, according to Nearchus, of all the rivers which on this coast run into the Ocean.

XL. The Persians dwell up to this point and the Susians next to them. Above the Susians lives another

independent tribe; these are called Uxians, and in my earlier history I have described them as brigands. The

length of the voyage along the Persian coast was four thousand four hundred stades. The Persian land is

divided, they say, into three climatic zones. The part which lies by the Red Sea is sandy and sterile, owing to

the heat. Then the next zone, northward, has a temperate climate; the country is grassy and has lush meadows

vines and all other fruits except the olive; it is rich with all sorts of gardens, has pure rivers running through,

and also lakes, and is good both for all sorts of birds which frequent rivers and lakes, and for horses, and also

pastures the other domestic animals, and is well wooded, and has plenty of game. The next zone, still going

northward, is wintry and snowy, Nearchus. tells us of some envoys from the Black Sea who after quite a short

journey met Alexander traversing Persia and caused him no small astonishment; and they explained to

Alexander how short the journey was. I have explained that the Uxians are neighbours to the Susians, as the

Mardians they also are brigands live next the Persians, and the Cossaeans come next to the Medes. All these

tribes Alexander reduced, coming upon them in wintertime, when they thought their country

unapproachable. He also founded cities so that they should no longer be nomads but cultivators, and tillers of

the ground, and so having a stake in the country might be deterred from raiding one another. From here the

convoy passed along the Susian territory. About this part of the voyage Nearchus says he cannot speak with

accurate detail, except about the roadsteads and the length of the voyage. This is because the country is for

the most part marshy and ruins out well into the sea, with breakers, and is very hard to get good anchorage in.

So their voyage was mostly in the open sea. They sailed out, therefore from the mouths of the river, where

they had encamped, just on the Persian border, taking on board water for five days; for the pilots said that

XLI. Then after traversing five hundred stades they anchored in the mouth of a lake, full of fish, called

Cataderbis: at the mouth was a small island called Margastana. Thence about daybreak they sailed out and

passed the shallows in columns of single ships; the shallows were marked on either side by poles driven

down, just as in the strait between the island Leucas and Acarnania signposts have been set up for navigators

so that the ships should not ground on the shallows. However, the shallows round Leucas are sandy and

render it easy for those aground to get off; but here it is mud on both sides of the channel, both deep and

tenacious; once aground there, they could not possibly get of. For the puntpoles sank into the mud and gave

them no help, and it proved impossible for the crews to disembark and push the ships off, for they sank up to

their breasts in the ooze. Thus then they sailed out with great difficulty and traversed six hundred stades, each

crew abiding by its ship; and then they took thought for supper. During the night, however, they were

fortunate in reaching deep sailing water and next day also, up to the evening; they sailed nine hundred stades,

and anchored in the mouth of the Euphrates near a village of Babylonia, called Didotis; here the merchants

gather together frankincense from the neighbouring country and all other sweetsmelling spices which

Arabia produces. From the mouth of the Euphrates to Babylon Nearchus says it is a voyage of three thousand

XLII. There they heard that Alexander was departing towards Susa. They therefore sailed back, in order to

sail up the Pasitigris and meet Alexander. So they sailed back, with the land of Susia on their left, and they

went along the lake into which the Tigris runs. It flows from Armenia past the city of Ninus, which once was

a great and rich city, and so makes the region between itself and the Euphrates; that is why it is called

'Between the Rivers.' The voyage from the lake up to the river itself is six hundred stades, and there is a

village of Susia called Aginis; this village is five hundred stades from Susa. The length of the voyage along

Susian territory to the mouth of the Pasitigris is two thousand stades. From there they sailed up the Pasitigris

through inhabited and prosperous country. Then they had sailed up about a hundred and fifty stades they

moored there, waiting for the scouts whom Nearchus had sent to see where the King was. He himself

sacrificed to the Saviour gods, and held an athletic meeting, and the whole naval force made merry. And

when news was brought that Alexander was now approaching they sailed again up the river; and they moored

near the pontoon bridge on which Alexander intended to take his army over to Susa. There the two forces

met; Alexander offered sacrifices for his ships and men, come safe back again, and games were held; and

whenever Nearchus appeared in the camp, the troops pelted him with ribbons and flowers. There also

Nearchus and Leonnatus were crowned by Alexander with a golden crown; Nearchus for the safe conveying

of the ships, Leonnatus for the victory he had achieved among the Oreitans and the natives who dwelt next to

them. Thus then Alexander received safe back his navy, which had started from the mouths of the Indus.

XLIII. On the right side of the Red Sea beyond Babylonia is the chief part of Arabia, and of this a part comes

down to the sea of Phoenicia and Palestinian Syria, but on the west, up to the Mediterranean, the Egyptians

are upon the Arabian borders. Along Egypt a gulf running in from the Great Sea makes it clear that by reason

of the gulf's joining with the High Seas one might sail round from Babylon into this gulf which runs into

Egypt. Yet, in point of fact, no one has yet sailed round this way by reason of the heat and the desert nature of

the coasts, only a few people who sailed over the open sea. But those of the army of Cambyses who came

safe from Egypt to Susa and those troops who were sent from Ptolemy Lagus to Seleucus Nicator at Babylon

through Arabia crossed an isthmus in a period of eight days and passed through a waterless and desert

country, riding fast upon camels, carrying water for themselves on their camels, and travelling by night; for

during the day they could not come out of shelter by reason of the heat. So far is the region on the other side

of this stretch of land, which we have demonstrated to be an isthmus from the Arabian gulf running into the

Red Sea, from being inhabited, that its northern parts are quite desert and sandy. Yet from the Arabian gulf

which runs along Egypt people have started, and have circumnavigated the greater part of Arabia hoping to

reach the sea nearest to Susa and Persia, and thus have sailed so far round the Arabian coast as the amount of

fresh water taken aboard their vessels have permitted, and then have returned home again. And those whom

Alexander sent from Babylon, in order that, sailing as far as they could on the right of the Red Sea, they

might reconnoitre the country on this side, these explorers sighted certain islands lying on their course, and

very possibly put in at the mainland of Arabia. But the cape which Nearchus says his party sighted running

out into the sea opposite Carmania no one has ever been able to round, and thus turn inwards towards the far

side. I am inclined to think that had this been navigable,ft and had there been any passage, it would have been

proved navigable, and a passage found, by the indefatigable energy of Alexander. Moreover, Hanno the

Libyan started out from Carthage and passed the pillars of Heracles and sailed into the outer Ocean, with

Libya on his port side, and he sailed on towards the east, fiveandthirty days all told. But when at last he

turned southward, he fell in with every sort of difficulty, want of water, blazing heat, and fiery streams

running into the sea. But Cyrene, lying in the more desert parts of Africa, is grassy and fertile and

wellwatered; it bears all sorts of fruits and animals, right up to the region where the silphium grows; beyond

this silphium belt its upper parts are bare and sandy. Here this my history shall cease, which, as well as my